The Adverse Academic and Social Effects of Slowed Processing Speed

Slowed processing speed, as measured by portions of standardized assessments like the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children | Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus (RAN/RAS) tests, and the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition (CTOPP-2), can significantly affect academic performance and social functioning. Processing speed reflects how quickly an individual perceives, understands, and responds to information. When processing speed is reduced, it creates challenges across multiple domains, particularly in academic and social contexts. This phenomenon can occur due to various factors, which often depend on the individual’s underlying condition, cognitive abilities, and environmental context. Here are some common causes as related specifically to school aged children:

1. Developmental Disorders (Zapparrata, Brooks, & Ober, 2023 a)
2. Learning Disabilities (Weiler et al, 2003)
3. Memory Deficits (Jacobson et al, 2011)
   • Working memory limitations can delay the ability to hold and manipulate information in real time.
4. Cognitive Load (Mayr & Kliegl, 2000)
   • A high demand on mental resources can overwhelm processing capabilities, particularly in tasks requiring multitasking or complex reasoning

Emotional or Psychological Factors (Braaten et al, 2020)

1. Anxiety or Stress:
   • High levels of stress can impair concentration and processing speed.
2. Depression:
   • Depression often reduces cognitive efficiency and overall mental agility.
3. Trauma/PTSD:
   • The brain may prioritize emotional regulation over cognitive tasks, resulting in slower processing (Herringa, 2017).

Environmental and Contextual Factors

1. Information Overload:
   • Complex or rapid presentation of information may hinder efficient processing.
2. Lack of Familiarity:
   • Unfamiliar tasks or topics may take longer to process and respond to.
3. Task Complexity:
   • Multistep or abstract tasks can slow processing, particularly for individuals with executive function challenges.

Academic Impacts of Slowed Processing Time

1. Reading Fluency and Comprehension (Landerl, et al, 2019; Johnson et al, 2010)
   Assessments like the RAN/RAS and portions of CTOPP-2 evaluate retrieval efficiency, which is critical for fluent reading. Students with slowed processing often struggle with:
   • Slow, choppy oral reading
   • Reduced comprehension due to the cognitive effort needed to decode
   • Difficulty completing timed reading tasks, which undermines confidence and performance.
2. Written Expression (Berninger & Amtmann, 2003; Mayes & Calhoun, 2007)
   Writing requires the integration of motor skills, language retrieval, and organization. Students with processing deficits often:
   • Produce incomplete or lower-quality written work.
   • Struggle to complete written assignments within a reasonable time frame.
   • Experience difficulties with written tests that emphasize speed.
3. Classroom Learning and Participation (Alloway & Gathercole, 2006; Kail & Salthouse, 1994)
   The need for additional processing time can limit a student’s ability to fully engage in classroom activities, such as:
   • Participating in discussions where quick responses are expected.
   • Following multi-step instructions in real-time.
   • Keeping pace with the overall flow of lessons.

Social Impacts of Slowed Processing Time (Zapparrata, Brooks, & Ober, 2023 b; Forchelli et al 2022; Dodge & Pettit, 2003; Adolphs, 2009; Martin & McDonald, 2003; Brinton & Fujiki, 2005)

1. Conversational Difficulties
   Social interactions rely on quick exchanges of ideas. Slowed processing time can hinder a student’s ability to:
   • Follow fast-moving group conversations.
   • Respond in a timely manner, leading to social misunderstandings.
   • Stay engaged, as peers may grow impatient and move on.
      
2. Peer Relationships
   Delayed responses or difficulty expressing oneself can lead to negative peer perceptions, including:
   • Being labeled as “disinterested” or “awkward.”
   • Facing exclusion from social interactions or group activities.
   • Experiencing bullying or teasing.
      
3. Emotional Consequences
   Constantly lagging behind peers can cause frustration and anxiety, leading to:
   • Withdrawal from social and academic opportunities.
   • Lower self-esteem and reduced willingness to participate.
   • A heightened risk of emotional dysregulation in stressful situations. 

Interventions and Support Strategies

1. Direct Language and Literacy Intervention
   Evidence-based interventions targeting language and literacy skills are critical for addressing the root causes of processing difficulties. Programs focusing on explicit instruction in decoding, fluency, reading comprehension and writing can help improve efficiency and mitigate the downstream effects of slowed processing time.
2. Extra Time on Tests and Assignments
   Allowing additional time reduces the pressure of completing tasks under strict time constraints, enabling students to demonstrate their true abilities without being penalized for slower processing speed. This accommodation is widely supported as an effective way to level the playing field for students with processing challenges.

Conclusion: Slowed processing speed is a cognitive difference that can profoundly affect students’ academic and social success. Without intervention, these challenges can lead to long-term consequences in education and personal relationships. By implementing direct, evidence-based language and literacy interventions alongside accommodations like extra time on assessments, educators and families can empower students to overcome barriers, achieve their potential, and thrive.

References

1. Adolphs, R. (2009). The social brain: Neural basis of social knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 693–716.
2. Alloway, T. P., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). How does working memory work in the classroom?. Educational Research and Reviews, 1(4), 134–139.
3. Berninger, V. W., & Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems: Research into practice. In Handbook of learning disabilities. The Guilford Press.
4. Braaten, E. B., Ward, A. K., Forchelli, G., Vuijk, P. J., Cook, N. E., McGuinness, P., Lee, B. A., Samkavitz, A., Lind, H., O’Keefe, S. M., & Doyle, A. E. (2020). Characteristics of child psychiatric outpatients with slow processing speed and potential mechanisms of academic impact. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(10), 1453–1464.
5. Brinton, B., & Fujiki, M. (2005). Social competence in children with language impairment: Making connections. Seminars in Speech and Language, 26(3), 151–159.
6. Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Fey, M. E. (2003). Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of individual differences in reading-related abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(6), 510-524.
7. Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 349–371.
8. Forchelli, G. A., Vuijk, P. J., Colvin, M. K., Ward, A. K., Koven, M. R., Dews, A., Doyle, A. E., & Braaten, E. B. (2022). What is a processing speed weakness? Importance of cognitive ability when defining processing speed in a child psychiatric population. Child Neuropsychology, 28(2), 266–286.
9. Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. SAGE Publications.
10. Herringa, R. J. (2017). Trauma, PTSD, and the developing brain. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(10), 69.
11. Jacobson, L. A., Ryan, M., Martin, R. B., Ewen, J., Mostofsky, S. H., Denckla, M. B., & Mahone, E. M. (2011). Working memory influences processing speed and reading fluency in ADHD. Child Neuropsychology, 17(3), 209–224.
12. Johnson, E. S., Humphrey, M., Mellard, D. F., Woods, K., & Swanson, H. L. (2010). Cognitive processing deficits and students with specific learning disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 3–18.
13. Kail, R., & Salthouse, T. A. (1994). Processing speed as a mental capacity. Acta Psychologica, 86(2-3), 199–225.
14. Landerl et al, (2019).  Phonological Awareness and Rapid Automatized Naming as Longitudinal Predictors of Reading in Five Alphabetic Orthographies with Varying Degrees of Consistency, Scientific Studies of Reading, 23:3, 220-234.
15. Martin, I., & McDonald, S. (2003). Weak coherence, no theory of mind, or executive dysfunction? Solving the puzzle of pragmatic language disorders. Brain and Language, 85(3), 451–466.
16. Mayr, U. & Kliegl, R. (2000). Task-set switching and long-term memory retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1124-1140.
17. Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007). Learning and memory disorders in school children. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(5), 783–798.
18. Therrien, W. J., & Kubina, R. M. (2006). Developing Reading Fluency With Repeated Reading. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41(3), 156-160.
19. Weiler, M. D., Forbes, P., Kirkwood, M., & Waber, D. (2003). The developmental course of processing speed in children with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85(2), 178–194.
20. Zapparrata, N. M., Brooks, P. J., & Ober, T. (2023 a). Developmental language disorder is associated with slower processing across domains: A meta-analysis of time-based tasks. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(1), 325–346.
21. Zapparrata, N. M., Brooks, P. J., & Ober, T. M. (2023 b). Slower processing speed in autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analytic investigation of time-based tasks. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(12), 4618–4640.